Ship

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For other uses, see Ship (disambiguation).

Italian full-rigged ship Amerigo Vespucci in New York Harbor, 1976

A ship is a large buoyant watercraft. Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on size, shape andcargo or passenger capacity. Ships are used on lakes, seas, and rivers for a variety of activities, such as thetransport of people or goods, fishing, entertainment, public safety, and warfare. Historically, a "ship" was a sailing vessel with at least three square-rigged masts and a full bowsprit.

Ships and boats have developed alongside humanity. In armed conflict and in daily life they have become an integral part of modern commercial and military systems. Fishing boats are used by millions of fishermen throughout the world. Military forces operate vessels for naval warfare and to transport and support forces ashore. Commercial vessels, nearly 35,000 in number, carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2007.^[1] As of 2011, there are about 104,304 ships with IMO numbers in the world.^[2]

Ships were always a key in history's great explorations and scientific and technological development. Navigators such as Zheng He spread such inventions as the compass and gunpowder. Ships have been used for such purposes as colonization and the slave trade, and have served scientific, cultural, and humanitarian needs. After the 16th century, new crops that had come from and to the Americas via the European seafarers significantly contributed to the world population growth.^[3] Ship transport has shaped the world's economy into today's energy-intensive pattern.

Nomenclature

Main parts of ship. 1: Smokestack or Funnel;2: Stern; 3: Propeller and Rudder; 4: Portside (the right side is known as starboard); 5: Anchor; 6: Bulbous bow;7: Bow; 8: Deck; 9: Superstructure

For more details on this topic, see Glossary of nautical terms.

Ships can usually be distinguished from boats based on size and the ship's ability to operate independently for extended periods.^[4] A commonly used rule of thumb is that if one vessel can carry another, the larger of the two is a ship.^[5] Dinghies are carried on sailing yachts as small as 35 feet (10.67 m), clearly not ships; this rule of thumb is not foolproof.

In the age of sail, a "ship" was a sailing vessel with at least three square-rigged masts and a full bowsprit; other types of vessel were also defined by their sailplan, e.g. barque, brigantine, etc.

A number of large vessels are usually referred to as boats. Submarines are a prime example.^[6] Other types of large vessel which are traditionally called boats are Great Lakes freighters, riverboats, andferryboats.^{[citation needed]} Though large enough to carry their own boats and heavy cargoes, these vessels are designed for operation on inland or protected coastal waters.

In most maritime traditions ships have individual names, and modern ships may belong to a ship class often named after its first ship. In English, a ship is traditionally referred to as "she", even if named after a man, but this is not universal usage; some journalistic style guides advise using "it" as referring to ships with female pronouns can be seen as offensive and outdated.^[7]^[8]

History

Further information: Maritime history

Prehistory and antiquity

A raft is among the simplest boat designs.

The first known vessels date back about 10,000 years ago, but could not be described as ships. The first navigators began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as sails. Affixed to the top of a pole set upright in a boat, these sails gave early ships range. This allowed men to explore widely, allowing for the settlement of Oceania for example (about 3,000 years ago).

By around 3000 BC, Ancient Egyptians knew how to assemble wooden planks into a hull.^[9] They used woven straps to lash the planks together,^[9] and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams.^[9]^[10] The Greek historian andgeographer Agatharchides had documented ship-faring among the early Egyptians: "During the prosperous period of the Old Kingdom, between the 30th and 25th centuries B. C., the river-routes were kept in order, and Egyptian ships sailed the Red Sea as far as the myrrh-country."^[11] Sneferu's ancient cedar wood ship Praise of the Two Lands is the first reference recorded (2613 BC) to a ship being referred to by name.^[12]

The ancient Egyptians were perfectly at ease building sailboats. A remarkable example of their shipbuilding skills was the Khufu ship, a vessel 143 feet (44 m) in length entombed at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza around 2500 BC and found intact in 1954.

It is known that ancient Nubia/Axum traded with India, and there is evidence that ships from Northeast Africa may have sailed back and forth between India/Sri Lanka and Nubia trading goods and even to Persia, Himyar and Rome.^[13] Aksum was known by the Greeks for having seaports for ships from Greece and Yemen.^[14]

Elsewhere in Northeast Africa, the Periplus of the Red Sea reports that Somalis, through their northern ports such as Zeila and Berbera, were trading frankincenseand other items with the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula well before the arrival of Islam as well as with then Roman-controlled Egypt.^[15]

A panel found at Mohenjodaro depicted a sailing craft. Vessels were of many types; their construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru, an ancient Indian text on shipbuilding. This treatise gives a technical exposition on the techniques of shipbuilding. It sets forth minute details about the various types of ships, their sizes, and the materials from which they were built. The Yukti Kalpa Taru sums up in a condensed form all the available information. The Yukti Kalpa Taru gives sufficient information and dates to prove that, in ancient times, Indian shipbuilders had a good knowledge of the materials which were used in building ships. In addition to describing the qualities of the different types of wood and their suitability for shipbuilding, the Yukti Kalpa Taru gives an elaborate classification of ships based on their size.

The oldest discovered sea faring hulled boat is the Egyptian Uluburun shipwreck off the coast of Turkey, dating back to 1300 BC.^[16]

The Phoenicians, the first to sail completely around Africa, and Greeks gradually mastered navigation at sea aboard triremes, exploring and colonizing theMediterranean via ship. Around 340 BC, the Greek navigator Pytheas of Massalia ventured from Greece to Western Europe and Great Britain.^[17] In the course of the 2nd century BC, Rome went on to destroy Carthage and subdue the Hellenistic kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean, achieving complete mastery of the inland sea, that they called Mare Nostrum. The monsoon wind system of the Indian Ocean was first sailed by Greek navigator Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 118 BC.^[18]

In China, by the time of the Zhou Dynasty ship technologies such as stern mounted rudders were developed, and by the Han Dynasty, a well kept naval fleet was an integral part of the military. Ship technology advanced to the point where by the medieval period, water tight compartments were developed.

Roman trireme mosaic from Carthage, Bardo Museum, Tunis.

The Swahili people had various extensive trading ports dotting the coast of medieval East Africa and Great Zimbabwe had extensive trading contacts with Central Africa, and likely also imported goods brought to Africa through the Southeast African shore trade of Kilwa in modern-day Tanzania.^[19]

It is known by historians that at its height the Mali Empire built a large naval fleet under Emperor Mansa Musa in the late 13th and early 14th century.^[20] Arabic sources describe what some consider to be visits to the New World by a Mali fleet in 1311.^[21]

Before the introduction of the compass, celestial navigation was the main method for navigation at sea. In China, early versions of the magnetic compass were being developed and used in navigation between 1040 and 1117.^[22] The true mariner's compass, using a pivoting needle in a dry box, was developed in Europe no later than 1300.^[23]^[24]

Renaissance

Until the Renaissance, navigational technology remained comparatively primitive. This absence of technology did not prevent some civilizations from becoming sea powers. Examples include the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice, Hanseatic League, and the Byzantine navy. The Vikings used their knarrs to explore North America, trade in the Baltic Sea and plunder many of the coastal regions of Western Europe.

A 3D model of the basic hull structure of a Venetian "galley of Flanders", a large Mediterranean trading vessel of the 15th century. The reconstruction by archaeologist Courtney Higgins is based on measurements given in contemporary ship treatises.^[25]

Towards the end of the 14th century, ships like the carrack began to develop towers on the bow and stern. These towers decreased the vessel's stability, and in the 15th century, the caravel, designed by the Portuguese, based on the Arabic qarib which could sail closer to the wind, became more widely used. The towers were gradually replaced by the forecastle and sterncastle, as in the carrack Santa María of Christopher Columbus. This increased freeboard allowed another innovation: the freeing port, and the artillery associated with it.

A Japanese atakebune from the 16th century

In the 16th century, the use of freeboard and freeing ports became widespread on galleons. The English modified their vessels to maximize their firepower and demonstrated the effectiveness of their doctrine, in 1588, by defeating the Spanish Armada.

At this time, ships were developing in Asia in much the same way as Europe. Japan used defensive naval techniques in theMongol invasions of Japan in 1281. It is likely that the Mongols of the time took advantage of both European and Asian shipbuilding techniques. During the 15th century, China's Ming Dynasty assembled one of the largest and most powerful naval fleets in the world for the diplomatic and power projection voyages of Zheng He. Elsewhere in Japan in the 15th century, one of the world's first iron-clads, "Tekkōsen" (鉄甲船), literally meaning "iron ships",^[26] was also developed. In Japan, during the Sengoku era from the fifteenth to 17th century, the great struggle for feudal supremacy was fought, in part, by coastal fleets of several hundred boats, including the atakebune.

Model of a medievalMogadishan ship.

During the Age of the Ajuran, the Somali sultanates and republics of Merca, Mogadishu, Barawa, Hobyo and their respective ports flourished, enjoying a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia, India, Venetia,^[27] Persia,Egypt, Portugal and as far away as China. In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya in what is modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloth and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax andivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.^[28]

Middle Age Swahili Kingdoms are known to have had trade port bullship and trade routes^[29] with the Islamic world and Asia and were described by Greek historians as "metropolises".^[30] Famous African trade ports such as Mombasa, Zanzibar, and Kilwa^[31]were known to Chinese sailors such as Zheng He and medieval Islamic historians such as the Berber Islamic voyager Abu Abdullah ibn Battua.^[32] In the 14th century AD, King Abubakari I, the brother of King Mansa Musa of the Mali Empire, is thought to have had a great armada of ships sitting on the coast of West Africa.^[33] This is corroborated by ibn Battuta himself who recalls several hundred Malian ships off the coast.^[34] This has led to great speculation, with historical evidence, that it is possible that Malian sailors may have reached the coast of Pre-Columbian America under the rule of Abubakari II, nearly two hundred years before Christopher Columbus^[35] and that black traders may have been in the Americas before Columbus.^[36]

Replica of Magellan’s Victoria.Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition that circumnavigated the globe in 1519-1522.

Fifty years before Christopher Columbus, Chinese navigator Zheng He traveled the world at the head of what was for the time a huge armada. The largest of his ships had nine masts, were 130 metres (430 ft) long and had a beam of 55 metres (180 ft). His fleet carried 30,000 men aboard 70 vessels, with the goal of bringing glory to the Chinese emperor.

The carrack and then the caravel were developed in Iberia. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established.^[37] In 1498, by reaching India, Vasco da Gama proved that the access to the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic was possible. These explorations in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans were soon followed by France,England and the Netherlands, who explored the Portuguese and Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean, reachingAustralia in 1606 and New Zealand in 1642.^[38] In the 17th century Dutch explorers such as Abel Tasman explored the coasts of Australia, while in the 18th century it was British explorer James Cook who mapped much of Polynesia.

Specialization and modernization

The British HMS Sandwich fires at the French flagship Bucentaure(completely dismasted) at the battle of Trafalgar (1805). The Bucentaure also fights HMS Victory (behind her) andHMS Temeraire (left side of the picture). In fact, HMS Sandwich never fought at Trafalgar, it's a mistake from Auguste Mayer, the painter.^[39]

Parallel to the development of warships, ships in service of marine fishery and trade also developed in the period between antiquity and the Renaissance. Still primarily a coastal endeavor, fishing is largely practiced by individuals with little other money using small boats.

Maritime trade was driven by the development of shipping companies with significant financial resources. Canal barges, towed by draft animals on an adjacent towpath, contended with the railway up to and past the early days of the industrial revolution. Flat-bottomed and flexible scow boats also became widely used for transporting small cargoes. Mercantile trade went hand-in-hand with exploration, self-financed by the commercial benefits of exploration.

During the first half of the 18th century, the French Navy began to develop a new type of vessel known as a ship of the line, featuring seventy-four guns. This type of ship became the backbone of all European fighting fleets. These ships were 56 metres (184 ft) long and their construction required 2,800 oak trees and 40 kilometres (25 mi) of rope; they carried a crew of about 800 sailors and soldiers.

RMS Titanic departs from Southampton. Her sinking would tighten safety regulations

During the 19th century the Royal Navy enforced a ban on the slave trade, acted to suppresspiracy, and continued to map the world. A clipper was a very fast sailing ship of the 19th century. The clipper routes fell into commercial disuse with the introduction of steam shipswith better fuel efficiency, and the opening of the Suez and Panama Canals.

Ship designs stayed fairly unchanged until the late 19th century. The industrial revolution, new mechanical methods of propulsion, and the ability to construct ships from metal triggered an explosion in ship design. Factors including the quest for more efficient ships, the end of long running and wasteful maritime conflicts, and the increased financial capacity of industrial powers created an avalanche of more specialized boats and ships. Ships built for entirely new functions, such as firefighting, rescue, and research, also began to appear.

In light of this, classification of vessels by type or function can be difficult. Even using very broad functional classifications such as fishery, trade, military, and exploration fails to classify most of the old ships. This difficulty is increased by the fact that the terms such as sloop and frigate are used by old and new ships alike, and often the modern vessels sometimes have little in common with their predecessors.

Today

The Colombo Express, one of the largest container ships in the world, owned and operated by Hapag-Lloyd ofGermany

In 2007, the world's fleet included 34,882 commercial vessels with gross tonnage of more than 1,000 tons,^[40] totaling 1.04 billion tons.^[1] These ships carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2006, a sum that grew by 8% over the previous year.^[1] In terms of tonnage, 39% of these ships are tankers, 26% are bulk carriers, 17% container ships and 15% were other types.^[1]

In 2002, there were 1,240 warships operating in the world, not counting small vessels such as patrol boats. The United Statesaccounted for 3 million tons worth of these vessels, Russia 1.35 million tons, the United Kingdom 504,660 tons and China402,830 tons. The 20th century saw many naval engagements during the two world wars, the Cold War, and the rise to power of naval forces of the two blocs. The world's major powers have recently used their naval power in cases such as the United Kingdom in the Falkland Islands and the United States in Iraq.

The size of the world's fishing fleet is more difficult to estimate. The largest of these are counted as commercial vessels, but the smallest are legion. Fishing vesselscan be found in most seaside villages in the world. As of 2004, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimated 4 million fishing vessels were operating worldwide.^[41] The same study estimated that the world's 29 million fishermen^[42] caught 85,800,000 tonnes (84,400,000 long tons; 94,600,000 short tons) of fish and shellfish that year.^[43]

Types of ships

Because ships are constructed using the principles of naval architecture that require same structural components, their classification is based on their function such as suggested by Paulet and Presles.,^[44] which requires modification of the components. The categories accepted in general by naval architects are:

High-speed craft - Multihulls including wave piercers, small-waterplane-area twin hull (SWATH), surface effect ships and hovercraft, hydrofoil, wing in ground effect craft (WIG).
Off shore oil vessels - Platform supply vessel, pipe layers, accommodation and crane barges, non and semi-submersible drilling rigs, production platforms,floating production storage and offloading units.
Fishing vessels

Motorised fishing trawlers, trap setters, seiners, longliners, trollers & factory ships.

Traditional sailing and rowed fishing vessels and boats used for handline fishing

Harbour work craft

Cable layers

Tugboats, dredgers, salvage vessels, tenders, Pilot boats.

Floating dry docks, floating cranes, lightership.

Dry cargo ships - tramp freighters, bulk carriers, cargo liners, container vessels, barge carriers, Ro-Ro ships, refrigerated cargo ships, timber carriers, livestock & light vehicle carriers.
Liquid cargo ships - Oil tankers, liquefied gas carriers, chemical carriers.
Passenger vessels

Liners, cruise and Special Trade Passenger (STP) ships

Cross-channel, coastal and harbour ferries.

Luxury & cruising yachts

Sail training and multi-masted ships

Recreational boats and craft - rowed, masted and motorised craft
Special-purpose vessels - weather and research vessels, deep sea survey vessels, and icebreakers.
Submersibles - industrial exploration, scientific research, tourist and hydrographic survey.
Warships

Surface combatant- deep and shallow draft

Submarines

Some of these are discussed in the following sections.

Inland and coastal boats

Seagoing commercial vessels

Main article: Merchant vessel

Two modern container ships in San Francisco

Commercial vessels or merchant ships can be divided into four broad categories: fishing, cargo ships, passenger ships, and special-purpose ships.^[46] Modern commercial vessels are typically powered by a single propeller driven by a diesel or, less usually, gas turbine engine.^{[citation needed]}, but until the mid-19th century they were predominantly square sail rigged. The fastest vessels may use pump-jet engines.^{[citation needed]} Most commercial vessels have full hull-forms to maximize cargo capacity.^{[citation needed]} Hulls are usually made of steel, although aluminum can be used on faster craft, and fiberglass on the smallest service vessels.^{[citation needed]} Commercial vessels generally have a crew headed by a captain, with deck officers andmarine engineers on larger vessels. Special-purpose vessels often have specialized crew if necessary, for example scientists aboard research vessels.

Fishing boats are generally small, often little more than 30 meters (98 ft) but up to 100 metres (330 ft) for a large tuna orwhaling ship. Aboard a fish processing vessel, the catch can be made ready for market and sold more quickly once the ship makes port. Special purpose vessels have special gear. For example, trawlers have winches and arms, stern-trawlers have a rear ramp, and tuna seiners have skiffs. In 2004, 85,800,000 tonnes (84,400,000 long tons; 94,600,000 short tons) of fish were caught in the marine capture fishery.^[47] Anchoveta represented the largest single catch at 10,700,000 tonnes (10,500,000 long tons; 11,800,000 short tons).^[47] That year, the top ten marine capture species also included Alaska pollock,Blue whiting, Skipjack tuna, Atlantic herring, Chub mackerel, Japanese anchovy, Chilean jack mackerel, Largehead hairtail, and Yellowfin tuna.^[47] Other species including salmon, shrimp, lobster, clams, squid and crab, are also commercially fished. Modern commercial fishermen use many methods. One is fishing by nets, such as purse seine, beach seine, lift nets, gillnets, or entangling nets. Another is trawling, including bottom trawl. Hooks and lines are used in methods like long-line fishing and hand-line fishing. Another method is the use of fishing trap.

Cargo ships transport dry and liquid cargo. Dry cargo can be transported in bulk by bulk carriers, packed directly onto a general cargo ship in break-bulk, packed inintermodal containers as aboard a container ship, or driven aboard as in roll-on roll-off ships. Liquid cargo is generally carried in bulk aboard tankers, such as oil tankers which may include both crude and finished products of oil, chemical tankers which may also carry vegetable oils other than chemicals and LPG/LNG tankers, although smaller shipments may be carried on container ships in tank containers.

Passenger ships range in size from small river ferries to very large cruise ships. This type of vessel includes ferries, which move passengers and vehicles on short trips; ocean liners, which carry passengers from one place to another; and cruise ships, which carry passengers on voyages undertaken for pleasure, visiting several places and with leisure activities on board, often returning them to the port of embarkation. Riverboats and inland ferries are specially designed to carry passengers, cargo, or both in the challenging river environment. Rivers present special hazards to vessels. They usually have varying water flows that alternately lead to high speed water flows or protruding rock hazards. Changing siltation patterns may cause the sudden appearance of shoal waters, and often floating or sunken logs and trees (called snags) can endanger the hulls and propulsion of riverboats. Riverboats are generally of shallow draft, being broad of beam and rather square in plan, with a low freeboard and high topsides. Riverboats can survive with this type of configuration as they do not have to withstand the high winds or large waves that are seen on large lakes, seas, or oceans.

The Albatun Dos, a tuna boat at work near Victoria, Seychelles

Fishing vessels are a subset of commercial vessels, but generally small in size and often subject to different regulations and classification. They can be categorized by several criteria: architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, geographical origin, and technical features such as rigging. As of 2004, the world's fishing fleet consisted of some 4 million vessels.^[41] Of these, 1.3 million were decked vessels with enclosed areas and the rest were open vessels.^[41] Most decked vessels were mechanized, but two-thirds of the open vessels were traditional craft propelled by sails and oars.^[41] More than 60% of all existing large fishing vessels^[48] were built in Japan, Peru, the Russian Federation, Spain or the United States of America.^[49]

Special purpose vessels

Main article: Weather ship

The weather ship MS Polarfront at sea.

A weather ship was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological observations for use in marine weather forecasting. Surface weather observations were taken hourly, and four radiosonde releases occurred daily.^[50] It was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support transatlantic flights.^[50]^[51] Proposed as early as 1927 by the aviation community,^[52] the establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II that the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) established a global network of weather ships in 1948, with 13 to be supplied by the United States.^[51] This number was eventually negotiated down to nine.^[53]

The weather ship crews were normally at sea for three weeks at a time, returning to port for 10 day stretches.^[50]Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as they did not avoid weather systems like other ships tended to for safety reasons.^[54] They were also helpful in monitoring storms at sea, such as tropical cyclones.^[55] The removal of a weather ship became a negative factor in forecasts leading up to the Great Storm of 1987.^[56] Beginning in the 1970s, their role became largely superseded by weather buoys due to the ships' significant cost.^[57] The agreement of the use of weather ships by the international community ended in 1990. The last weather ship was Polarfront, known as weather station M ("Mike"), which was put out of operation on 1 January 2010. Weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation.

Naval vessels

Main article: Naval ship

American aircraft carrier Harry S. Truman and a replenishment ship

Naval vessels are those used by a navy for military purposes. There have been many types of naval vessel. Modern naval vessels can be broken down into three categories: surface warships, submarines, and support and auxiliary vessels.

Modern warships are generally divided into seven main categories: aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers, frigates, corvettes,submarines and amphibious assault ships. The distinction between cruisers, destroyers, frigates, and corvettes is not rigorous; the same vessel may be described differently in different navies. Battleships were used during the Second World War and occasionally since then (the last battleships were removed from the U.S. Naval Vessel Register in March 2006), but were made obsolete by the use of carrier-borne aircraft and guided missiles.^[58]

Most military submarines are either attack submarines or ballistic missile submarines. Until the end of World War II the primary role of the diesel/electric submarine was anti-ship warfare, inserting and removing covert agents and military forces, and intelligence-gathering. With the development of the homing torpedo, better sonar systems, and nuclear propulsion, submarines also became able to effectively hunt each other. The development of submarine-launched nuclear and cruise missiles gave submarines a substantial and long-ranged ability to attack both land and sea targets with a variety of weapons ranging from cluster munitions to nuclear weapons.

Most navies also include many types of support and auxiliary vessel, such as minesweepers, patrol boats, offshore patrol vessels, replenishment ships, and hospital ships which are designated medical treatment facilities.^[59]

Fast combat vessels such as cruisers and destroyers usually have fine hulls to maximize speed and maneuverability.^[60] They also usually have advanced marine electronics and communication systems, as well as weapons.

Architecture

Further information: Naval architecture

Some components exist in vessels of any size and purpose. Every vessel has a hull of sorts. Every vessel has some sort of propulsion, whether it's a pole, an ox, or a nuclear reactor. Most vessels have some sort of steering system. Other characteristics are common, but not as universal, such as compartments, holds, a superstructure, and equipment such as anchors and winches.

Hull

Main article: Hull (watercraft)

A ship's hull endures harsh conditions at sea, as illustrated by thisreefer ship in bad weather.

For a ship to float, its weight must be less than that of the water displaced by the ship's hull.^[61] There are many types of hulls, from logs lashed together to form a raft to the advanced hulls of America's Cup sailboats. A vessel may have a single hull (called a monohull design), two in the case of catamarans, or three in the case of trimarans. Vessels with more than three hulls are rare, but some experiments have been conducted with designs such as pentamarans. Multiple hulls are generally parallel to each other and connected by rigid arms.

Hulls have several elements. The bow is the foremost part of the hull. Many ships feature a bulbous bow. The keel is at the very bottom of the hull, extending the entire length of the ship. The rear part of the hull is known as the stern, and many hulls have a flat back known as a transom. Common hull appendages include propellers for propulsion, rudders for steering, andstabilizers to quell a ship's rolling motion. Other hull features can be related to the vessel's work, such as fishing gear andsonar domes.

Hulls are subject to various hydrostatic and hydrodynamic constraints. The key hydrostatic constraint is that it must be able to support the entire weight of the boat, and maintain stability even with often unevenly distributed weight. Hydrodynamic constraints include the ability to withstand shock waves, weather collisions and groundings.

Older ships and pleasure craft often have or had wooden hulls. Steel is used for most commercial vessels. Aluminium is frequently used for fast vessels, andcomposite materials are often found in sailboats and pleasure craft. Some ships have been made with concrete hulls.

Propulsion systems

A ship's engineroom

Main article: Marine propulsion

Propulsion systems for ships fall into three categories: human propulsion, sailing, and mechanical propulsion. Human propulsion includes rowing, which was used even on large galleys. Propulsion by sail generally consists of a sail hoisted on an erect mast, supported by stays and spars and controlled by ropes. Sail systems were the dominant form of propulsion until the 19th century. They are now generally used for recreation and competition, although experimental sail systems, such as the turbosails, rotorsails, and wingsails have been used on larger modern vessels for fuel savings.

Mechanical propulsion systems generally consist of a motor or engine turning a propeller, or less frequently, an impeller orwave propulsion fins. Steam engines were first used for this purpose, but have mostly been replaced by two-stroke or four-stroke diesel engines, outboard motors, and gas turbine engines on faster ships. Nuclear reactors producing steam are used to propel warships and icebreakers, and there have been attempts to utilize them to power commercial vessels (see NSSavannah).

In addition to traditional fixed and controllable pitch propellers there are many specialized variations, such as contra-rotating and nozzle-style propellers. Most vessels have a single propeller, but some large vessels may have up to four propellers supplemented with transverse thrusters for maneuvring at ports. The propeller is connected to the main engine via a propeller shaft and, in case of medium- and high-speed engines, a reduction gearbox. Some modern vessels have adiesel-electric powertrain in which the propeller is turned by an electric motor powered by the ship's generators.

Steering systems

The rudder and propeller on a newly built ferry

For ships with independent propulsion systems for each side, such as manual oars or some paddles,^[62] steering systems may not be necessary. In most designs, such as boats propelled by engines or sails, a steering system becomes necessary. The most common is a rudder, a submerged plane located at the rear of the hull. Rudders are rotated to generate a lateral force which turns the boat. Rudders can be rotated by a tiller, manual wheels, or electro-hydraulic systems. Autopilot systems combine mechanical rudders with navigation systems. Ducted propellers are sometimes used for steering.

Some propulsion systems are inherently steering systems. Examples include the outboard motor, the bow thruster, and the Z-drive.

Holds, compartments, and the superstructure

Larger boats and ships generally have multiple decks and compartments. Separate berthings and heads are found on sailboats over about 25 feet (7.6 m). Fishing boats and cargo ships typically have one or more cargo holds. Most larger vessels have an engine room, a galley, and various compartments for work. Tanks are used to store fuel, engine oil, and fresh water. Ballast tanks are equipped to change a ship's trim and modify its stability.

Superstructures are found above the main deck. On sailboats, these are usually very low. On modern cargo ships, they are almost always located near the ship's stern. On passenger ships and warships, the superstructure generally extends far forward.

Equipment

Shipboard equipment varies from ship to ship depending on such factors as the ship's era, design, area of operation, and purpose. Some types of equipment that are widely found include:

Masts can be the home of antennas, navigation lights, radar transponders, fog signals, and similar devices often required by law.
Ground tackle includes equipment such as mooring winches, windlasses, and anchors. Anchors are used to moor ships in shallow water. They are connected to the ship by a rope or chain. On larger vessels, the chain runs through a hawsepipe.
Cargo equipment such as cranes and cargo booms are used to load and unload cargo and ship's stores.
Safety equipment such as lifeboats, liferafts, and survival suits are carried aboard many vessels for emergency use.

Design considerations

Hydrostatics

Main article: Fluid statics

Some vessels, like the LCAC, can operate in a non-displacement mode.

Boats and ships are kept on (or slightly above) the water in three ways:

For most vessels, known as displacement vessels, the vessel's weight is offset by that of the water displaced by the hull.
For planing ships and boats, such as the hydrofoil, the lift developed by the movement of the foil through the water increases with the vessel's speed, until the vessel is foilborne.
For non-displacement craft such as hovercraft and air-cushion vehicles, the vessel is suspended over the water by a cushion of high-pressure air it projects downwards against the surface of the water.

A vessel is in equilibrium when the upwards and downwards forces are of equal magnitude. As a vessel is lowered into the water its weight remains constant but the corresponding weight of water displaced by its hull increases. When the two forces are equal, the boat floats. If weight is evenly distributed throughout the vessel, it floats without trim or heel.

A vessel's stability is considered in both this hydrostatic sense as well as a hydrodynamic sense, when subjected to movement, rolling and pitching, and the action of waves and wind. Stability problems can lead to excessive pitching and rolling, and eventually capsizing and sinking.

Hydrodynamics

Main article: Fluid dynamics

Fishing boat Dona Delfina

The advance of a vessel through water is resisted by the water. This resistance can be broken down into several components, the main ones being the friction of the water on the hull and wave making resistance. To reduce resistance and therefore increase the speed for a given power, it is necessary to reduce the wetted surface and use submerged hull shapes that produce low amplitude waves. To do so, high-speed vessels are often more slender, with fewer or smaller appendages. The friction of the water is also reduced by regular maintenance of the hull to remove the sea creatures and algae that accumulate there. Antifouling paint is commonly used to assist in this. Advanced designs such as the bulbous bow assist in decreasing wave resistance.

A simple way of considering wave-making resistance is to look at the hull in relation to its wake. At speeds lower than the wave propagation speed, the wave rapidly dissipates to the sides. As the hull approaches the wave propagation speed, however, the wake at the bow begins to build up faster than it can dissipate, and so it grows in amplitude. Since the water is not able to "get out of the way of the hull fast enough", the hull, in essence, has to climb over or push through the bow wave. This results in an exponential increase in resistance with increasing speed.

This hull speed is found by the formula:

\mbox{knots} \approx 1.34 \times \sqrt{L \mbox{ft}}

or, in metric units:

\mbox{knots} \approx 2.5 \times \sqrt{L \mbox{m}}

where L is the length of the waterline in feet or meters.

When the vessel exceeds a speed/length ratio of 0.94, it starts to outrun most of its bow wave, and the hull actually settles slightly in the water as it is now only supported by two wave peaks. As the vessel exceeds a speed/length ratio of 1.34, the hull speed, the wavelength is now longer than the hull, and the stern is no longer supported by the wake, causing the stern to squat, and the bow rise. The hull is now starting to climb its own bow wave, and resistance begins to increase at a very high rate. While it is possible to drive a displacement hull faster than a speed/length ratio of 1.34, it is prohibitively expensive to do so. Most large vessels operate at speed/length ratios well below that level, at speed/length ratios of under 1.0.

Vessels move along the three axes: 1. heave, 2. sway, 3. surge, 4. yaw, 5. pitch, 6. roll

For large projects with adequate funding, hydrodynamic resistance can be tested experimentally in a hull testing pool or using tools of computational fluid dynamics.

Vessels are also subject to ocean surface waves and sea swell as well as effects of wind and weather. These movements can be stressful for passengers and equipment, and must be controlled if possible. The rolling movement can be controlled, to an extent, by ballasting or by devices such as fin stabilizers. Pitching movement is more difficult to limit and can be dangerous if the bow submerges in the waves, a phenomenon called pounding. Sometimes, ships must change course or speed to stop violent rolling or pitching.

How it has been convincingly shown in scientific studies of the 21st century,^[63]^[64] controllability of some vessels decreases dramatically in some cases that are conditioned by effects of the bifurcation memory. This class of vessels includes ships with high manoeuvring capabilities, aircraft and controlled underwater vehicles designed to be unstable in steady-state motion that are interesting in terms of applications. These features must be considered in designing ships and in their control in critical situations.

Lifecycle

A ship will pass through several stages during its career. The first is usually an initial contract to build the ship, the details of which can vary widely based on relationships between the shipowners, operators, designers and the shipyard. Then, the design phase carried out by a naval architect. Then the ship is constructed in a shipyard. After construction, the vessel is launched and goes into service. Ships end their careers in a number of ways, ranging from shipwrecks to service as amuseum ship to the scrapyard.

Lines plan for the hull of a basic cargo ship

Design

Construction

Main article: Shipbuilding

Ship construction takes place in a shipyard, and can last from a few months for a unit produced in series, to several years to reconstruct a wooden boat like the frigate Hermione, to more than 10 years for an aircraft carrier. During World War II, the need for cargo ships was so urgent that construction time for Liberty Ships went from initially eight months or longer, down to weeks or even days. Builders employed production line and prefabrication techniques such as those used in shipyards today.^[65]^[66]^[67]

Hull materials and vessel size play a large part in determining the method of construction. The hull of a mass-produced fiberglass sailboat is constructed from a mold, while the steel hull of a cargo ship is made from large sections welded together as they are built.

A ship launching at the Northern Shipyard in Gdansk, Poland

A shipyard at Kerala, Southern India

Generally, construction starts with the hull, and on vessels over about 30 meters (98 ft), by the laying of the keel. This is done in a drydock or on land. Once the hull is assembled and painted, it is launched. The last stages, such as raising the superstructure and adding equipment and accommodation, can be done after the vessel is afloat.

Once completed, the vessel is delivered to the customer. Ship launching is often a ceremony of some significance, and is usually when the vessel is formally named. A typical small rowboat can cost under US$100, $1,000 for a small speedboat, tens of thousands of dollars for a cruising sailboat, and about $2,000,000 for a Vendée Globe class sailboat. A 25 meters (82 ft) trawler may cost $2.5 million, and a 1,000-person-capacity high-speed passenger ferry can cost in the neighborhood of $50 million. A ship's cost partly depends on its complexity: a small, general cargo shipwill cost $20 million, a Panamax-sized bulk carrier around $35 million, a supertanker around $105 million and a large LNG carrier nearly $200 million. The most expensive ships generally are so because of the cost of embedded electronics: a Seawolf-class submarine costs around $2 billion, and an aircraft carrier goes for about $3.5 billion.

Repair and conversion

An able seaman uses a needlegun scaler while refurbishing a mooring winch at sea

Ships undergo nearly constant maintenance during their career, whether they be underway, pierside, or in some cases, in periods of reduced operating status between charters or shipping seasons.

Most ships, however, require trips to special facilities such as a drydock at regular intervals. Tasks often done at drydock include removing biological growths on the hull, sandblasting and repainting the hull, and replacing sacrificial anodes used to protect submerged equipment from corrosion. Major repairs to the propulsion and steering systems as well as major electrical systems are also often performed at dry dock.

Vessels that sustain major damage at sea may be repaired at a facility equipped for major repairs, such as a shipyard. Ships may also be converted for a new purpose: oil tankers are often converted into floating production storage and offloading units.

A ship graveyard in France

End of service

Main article: Ship disposal

Most ocean-going cargo ships have a life expectancy of between 20 and 30 years. A sailboat made of plywood or fiberglass can last between 30 and 40 years. Solid wooden ships can last much longer but require regular maintenance. Carefully maintained steel-hulled yachts can have a lifespan of over 100 years.

As ships age, forces such as corrosion, osmosis, and rotting compromise hull strength, and a vessel becomes too dangerous to sail. At this point, it can be scuttled at sea or scrapped by shipbreakers. Ships can also be used as museum ships, or expended to construct breakwaters or artificial reefs.

Many ships do not make it to the scrapyard, and are lost in fires, collisions, grounding, or sinking at sea. The Allies lost some 5,150 ships during World War II.^[68]

Measuring ships

One can measure ships in terms of overall length, length of the ship at the waterline, beam (breadth), depth (distance between the crown of the weather deck and the top of the keelson), draft (distance between the highest waterline and the bottom of the ship) and tonnage. A number of different tonnage definitions exist and are used when describing merchant ships for the purpose of tolls, taxation, etc.

In Britain until Samuel Plimsoll's Merchant Shipping Act of 1876, ship-owners could load their vessels until their decks were almost awash, resulting in a dangerously unstable condition. Anyone who signed on to such a ship for a voyage and, upon realizing the danger, chose to leave the ship, could end up in jail. Plimsoll, aMember of Parliament, realised the problem and engaged some engineers to derive a fairly simple formula to determine the position of a line on the side of any specific ship's hull which, when it reached the surface of the water during loading of cargo, meant the ship had reached its maximum safe loading level. To this day, that mark, called the "Plimsoll Line", exists on ships' sides, and consists of a circle with a horizontal line through the centre. On the Great Lakes of North America the circle is replaced with a diamond. Because different types of water (summer, fresh, tropical fresh, winter north Atlantic) have different densities, subsequent regulations required painting a group of lines forward of the Plimsoll mark to indicate the safe depth (or freeboard above the surface) to which a specific ship could load in water of various densities. Hence the "ladder" of lines seen forward of the Plimsoll mark to this day. This is called the "freeboard mark" or "load line mark" in the marine industry.

Ship pollution

Ship pollution is the pollution of air and water by shipping. It is a problem that has been accelerating as trade has become increasingly globalized, posing an increasing threat to the world’s oceans and waterways as globalization continues. It is expected that, “...shipping traffic to and from the USA is projected to double by 2020."^[69] Because of increased traffic in ocean ports, pollution from ships also directly affects coastal areas. The pollution produced affects biodiversity, climate, food, and human health. However, the degree to which humans are polluting and how it affects the world is highly debated and has been a hot international topic for the past 30 years.

Oil spills

Main article: Oil spill

The Exxon Valdez spilled10,800,000 US gallons (8,993,000 imp gal; 40,880,000 L) of oil into Alaska's Prince William Sound.^[70]

Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment. Crude oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment.^[71] Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles.

By the sheer amount of oil carried, modern oil tankers must be considered something of a threat to the environment. An oil tanker can carry 2 million barrels (318,000 m³) of crude oil, or 84,000,000 US gallons (69,940,000 imp gal; 318,000,000 L). This is more than six times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez incident. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped 10,800,000 US gallons (8,993,000 imp gal; 40,880,000 L) of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers, over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed.^[71]

The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has researched 9,351 accidental spills since 1974.^[72] According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil.^[72] 91% of the operational oil spills were small, resulting in less than 7 tons per spill.^[72] Spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84% of these involving losses of over 700 tons.^[72]

Following the Exxon Valdez spill, the United States passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA-90), which included a stipulation that all tankers entering its waters bedouble-hulled by 2015. Following the sinkings of the Erika (1999) and Prestige (2002), the European Union passed its own stringent anti-pollution packages (known as Erika I, II, and III), which require all tankers entering its waters to be double-hulled by 2010. The Erika packages are controversial because they introduced the new legal concept of "serious negligence".^[73]

Ballast water

Main article: Ballast water discharge and the environment

A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side

When a large vessel such as a container ship or an oil tanker unloads cargo, seawater is pumped into other compartments in the hull to help stabilize and balance the ship. During loading, this ballast water is pumped out from these compartments.^[74]

One of the problems with ballast water transfer is the transport of harmful organisms. Meinesz^[75] believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi, a species of comb jellyfish that inhabits estuaries from the United States to the Valdés peninsula in Argentina along the Atlantic coast, has caused notable damage in the Black Sea. It was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a ship’s ballast water. The population of the jellyfish shot up exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the localfishing industry. "The anchovy catch fell from 204,000 tonnes (225,000 short tons; 201,000 long tons) in 1984 to 200 tonnes (220 short tons; 197 long tons) in 1993; sprat from 24,600 tonnes (27,100 short tons; 24,200 long tons) in 1984 to 12,000 tonnes (13,200 short tons; 11,800 long tons) in 1993; horse mackerel from 4,000 tonnes (4,410 short tons; 3,940 long tons) in 1984 to zero in 1993."^[75] Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton, including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the ecosystem. Recently the jellyfish have been discovered in the Caspian Sea. Invasive species can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce new genetic material, alter landscapes and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food. "On land and in the sea, invasive species are responsible for about 137 billion dollars in lost revenue and management costs in the U.S. each year."^[71]

Ballast and bilge discharge from ships can also spread human pathogens and other harmful diseases and toxins potentially causing health issues for humans and marine life alike.^[76] Discharges into coastal waters, along with other sources of marine pollution, have the potential to be toxic to marine plants, animals, andmicroorganisms, causing alterations such as changes in growth, disruption of hormone cycles, birth defects, suppression of the immune system, and disorders resulting in cancer, tumors, and genetic abnormalities or even death.^[71]

Exhaust emissions

Exhaust stack on a container ship.

Exhaust emissions from ships are considered to be a significant source of air pollution. “Seagoing vessels are responsible for an estimated 14 percent of emissions of nitrogen from fossil fuels and 16 percent of the emissions of sulfur from petroleum uses into the atmosphere.”^[71] In Europe ships make up a large percentage of the sulfur introduced to the air, “...as much sulfur as all the cars,lorries and factories in Europe put together.”^[77] “By 2010, up to 40% of air pollution over land could come from ships.”^[77] Sulfur in the air creates acid rain which damages crops and buildings. When inhaled sulfur is known to cause respiratory problems and increase the risk of a heart attack.^[77]

Ship breaking

Main article: Ship breaking

Ship breaking or ship demolition is a type of ship disposal involving the breaking up of ships for scrap recycling, with the hulls being discarded in ship graveyards. Most ships have a lifespan of a few decades before there is so much wear that refitting and repair becomes uneconomical. Ship breaking allows materials from the ship, especially steel, to be reused.

Ship breaking near Chittagong,Bangladesh

In addition to steel and other useful materials, however, ships (particularly older vessels) can contain many substances that are banned or considered dangerous in developed countries. Asbestos and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are typical examples. Asbestos was used heavily in ship construction until it was finally banned in most of the developed world in the mid 1980s. Currently, the costs associated with removing asbestos, along with the potentially expensive insurance and health risks, have meant that ship-breaking in most developed countries is no longer economically viable. Removing the metal for scrap can potentially cost more than the scrap value of the metal itself. In most of the developing world, however, shipyards can operate without the risk of personal injury lawsuits or workers' health claims, meaning many of these shipyards may operate with high health risks. Furthermore, workers are paid very low rates with no overtime or other allowances. Protective equipment is sometimes absent or inadequate. Dangerous vapors and fumes from burning materials can be inhaled, and dusty asbestos-laden areas around such breakdown locations are commonplace.

Aside from the health of the yard workers, in recent years, ship breaking has also become an issue of major environmental concern. Many developing nations, in which ship breaking yards are located, have lax or no environmental law, enabling large quantities of highly toxic materials to escape into the environment and causing serious health problems among ship breakers, the local population and wildlife. Environmental campaign groups such asGreenpeace have made the issue a high priority for their campaigns.^[78]

Buoyancy

Notes

^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d UNCTAD 2007, p. x and p. 32.
Jump up^ "How Many Ships are there in the World?". Shipping Research and Finance. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
Jump up^ "The Columbian Exchange". The University of North Carolina.
Jump up^ Cutler 1999, p. 620.
Jump up^ Cutler 1999, p. 611.
Jump up^ Chief of Naval Operations (March 2001). "The Saga of the Submarine: Early Years to the Beginning of Nuclear Power". United States Navy. Retrieved2008-10-03.
Jump up^ "The Times Style Guide". Timesonline.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-07-09.
Jump up^ George, Rose (29 November 2010). "All at Sea". Slate Magazine. Retrieved4 December 2010.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Ward, Cheryl. "World's Oldest Planked Boats," in Archaeology (Volume 54, Number 3, May/June 2001). Archaeological Institute of America.Archaeology.org
Jump up^ The earliest known Egyptian boats date to 3000 BC and were found in Abydos in 1991. They consisted of planks joined by ropes passing through mortises. Similar boats dating to 2600 BC were found in 1954 and 1987 in pits at the Great Pyramid of Khufu in Giza. In 1894, Egyptian boats composed of planks joined by mortises and tenons were found in Dashur. See: ABC.se
Jump up^ Agatharchides, in Wilfred Harvey Schoff (Secretary of the Commercial Museum of Philadelphia) with a foreword by W. P. Wilson, Sc. Director, The Philadelphia Museums. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century, Translated from the Greek and Annotated(1912). New York, New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., pages 50 (for attribution) and 57 (for quote).
Jump up^ Anzovin, item # 5393, page 385 Reference to a ship with a name appears in an inscription of 2613 BCE that recounts the shipbuilding achievements of the fourth-dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Sneferu. He was recorded as the builder of a cedarwood vessel called "Praise of the Two Lands."
Jump up^ "Aksum An African Civilization of Late Antiquity by Stuart Munro-Hay" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-07-09.
Jump up^ Aksum by MSN Encarta. Encarta.msn.com. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
Jump up^ Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye (2001). Cultures and Customs of Somalia.ISBN 978-0-313-31333-2. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
Jump up^ Liz Burlingame (Aug 23, 2013). "Sunken Treasures: The World's Most Valuable Shipwreck Discoveries". The Weather Channel.
Jump up^ Chisholm, 1911:703.
Jump up^ Greatest emporium in the world, CSI, UNESCO.
Jump up^ Hall, Martin; Silliman, Stephen W. (2006). Historical Archaeology. ISBN 978-1-4051-0751-8. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
Jump up^ Texancultures.utsa.edu^{[dead link]}
Jump up^ Joan Baxter (13 December 2000). "Africa's 'greatest explorer'". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-02-12.
Jump up^ Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.181
Jump up^ Frederic C. Lane, “The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass,”The American Historical Review, Vol. 68, No. 3. (Apr., 1963), p.615ff.
Jump up^ Chisholm, 1911:284.
Jump up^ Higgins, Courtney Rosali (2012) The Venetian Galley of Flanders: From Medieval (2-Dimensional) Treatises to 21st Century (3-Dimensional) Model.Master's thesis, Texas A&M University [1]
Jump up^ Stephen Turnbull, “Samurai Warfare” (London, 1996), Cassell & Co, p.102 ISBN 1-85409-280-4
Jump up^ Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver
Jump up^ East Africa and its Invaders pg.38
Jump up^ "Eastern and Southern Africa 500-1000 AD". Metmuseum.org. Retrieved2009-04-21.
Jump up^ "Tanzanian dig unearths ancient secret by Tira Shubart". BBC News. 2002-04-17. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
Jump up^ Newitt, M. D. D (1995). A History of Mozambique. ISBN 978-0-253-34006-1. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
Jump up^ "Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354". Fordham.edu. 2001-02-21. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
Jump up^ "West African Kingdoms". Kurahulanda.com. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
Jump up^ "The Story of Africa". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
Jump up^ A Review by AUSTIN HAY (1922-10-22). "Africa's Part in the Discovery of America by the". New York Times. Retrieved 2012-07-09.
Jump up^ "Africa's 'greatest explorer' by BBC". BBC News. 2000-12-13. Retrieved2009-04-21.
Jump up^ "The European Golden Age of Shipping". Discovery Channel.
Jump up^ Love, Ronald S., "Maritime exploration in the age of discovery, 1415-1800", Greenwood guides to historic events, 1500-1900, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0-313-32043-8
Jump up^ Auguste Mayer's picture as described by the official website of the Musée national de la Marine (in French)^{[dead link]}
Jump up^ UNCTAD 2007, p. 32.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d UNFAO, 2007, p. 25.
Jump up^ UNFAO 2005, p.6.
Jump up^ UNFAO 2005, p.9.
Jump up^ Paulet, Dominique; Presles ,Dominique (1999). Architecture navale, connaissance et pratique (in French). Paris: Éditions de la Villette. ISBN 2-903539-46-4.
Jump up^ Office of Data and Economic Analysis, 2006, p. 2.
Jump up^ UNCTAD 2007, p. xii uses a similar, but slightly more detailed classification system.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c UNFAO, 2007, p. 11.
Jump up^ UNFAO defines a large fishing vessel as one with gross tonnage over 100 GT.
Jump up^ UNFAO, 2007, p. 28.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Malcolm Francis Willoughby (June 1980). The U.S. Coast Guard in World War II. pp. 127–130. ISBN 978-0-405-13081-6. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b "Britain's First Weather Ship". Popular Mechanics (Hearst Magazines) 89(1): p. 136. January 1948. ISSN 0032-4558.
Jump up^ George Lee Dowd, Jr. (August 1927). "The First Plane to Germany". Popular Science (Popular Science Publishing Company, Inc.) 111 (2): 121. Retrieved2011-01-18.
Jump up^ Hans Ulrich Roll (1965). Physics of the marine atmosphere. Academic Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-12-593650-7. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
Jump up^ Stanislaw R. Massel (1996). Ocean surface waves: their physics and prediction. World Scientific. pp. 369–371. ISBN 978-981-02-2109-6. Retrieved2011-01-18.
Jump up^ Carl. O. Erickson (March 1967). "Some Aspects of the Development of Hurricane Dorothy" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review 95 (3): 121–130.doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1967)095<0121:SAOTDO>2.3.CO;2. Retrieved2011-01-18.
Jump up^ "Romeo Would Have Spied the Storm". New Scientist (IPC Magazines) 116(1583): 22. 1987-10-22. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
Jump up^ National Research Council (U.S.). Ocean Science Committee, National Research Council (U.S.). Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction (1974).The role of the ocean in predicting climate: a report of workshops conducted by Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction under the auspices of the Ocean Science Committee of the Ocean Affairs Board, Commission on Natural Resources, National Research Council. National Academies. p. 40. Retrieved2011-01-18.
Jump up^ With the addition of corvettes, this is the categorization used at United States Navy. "U.S. Navy Ships". United States Navy. Retrieved 2008-04-20.
Jump up^ Hospital Ship (definition via WordNet, Princeton University)
Jump up^ Cutter, 1999, p. 224.
Jump up^ "Boats - Why do they float?". Environmental Involvement for Young People. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
Jump up^ Almost all paddle steamers had a single engine with their paddles permanently coupled, without any clutches, and so could not be used for steering. Only a few examples with separate engines were steerable. The Royal Navy however operated diesel-electric harbour tugs with paddles into the 1970s, for their superior maneuverability.
Jump up^ Feigin, M I (2001). Проявление эффектов бифуркационной памяти в поведении динамической системы [Manifestation of the bifurcation memory effect in behaviour of dynamic system]. Soros Educational Journal (journal) (in Russian) 7 (3): 121–127.
Jump up^ Feigin, M; Kagan, M (2004). "Emergencies as a manifestation of effect of bifurcation memory in controlled unstable systems". International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos (journal) 14 (7): 2439–2447.doi:10.1142/S0218127404010746. ISSN 0218-1274.
Jump up^ Sawyer, L.A. and Mitchell, W. H. The Liberty Ships: The History of the "Emergency" Type Cargo Ships Constructed in the United States During the Second World War, pp. 7-10, 2nd Edition, Lloyd's of London Press Ltd., London, England, 1985. ISBN 1-85044-049-2.
Jump up^ Jaffee, Capt. Walter W. The Lane Victory: The Last Victory Ship in War and Peace, pp. 4-9, 15-32, 2nd Edition, Glencannon Press, Palo Alto, California, 1997. ISBN 0-9637586-9-1.
Jump up^ Herman, Arthur. Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II, pp. 135-6, 178-80, Random House, New York, NY, 2012. ISBN 978-1-4000-6964-4.
Jump up^ Sea Lanes in Wartime - The American Experience 1775-1945, 2nd edition, by Albion, Robert Greenhalgh and Pope, Jennie Barnes, Archon Books, 1968.
Jump up^ Watson, T. (2004, August 30). Ship pollution clouds USA's skies. USA Today. Retrieved November 1, 2006, from USAtoday.com
Jump up^ "Frequently asked questions about the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill". State of Alaska.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Panetta, L. E. (Chair) (2003). America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change [Electronic Version, CD] Pew Oceans Commission.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d "International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Statistics". Itopf.com. 2005-06-09. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
Jump up^ European Parliament (2005). Directive 2005/35/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 September 2005 on ship-source pollution and on the introduction of penalties for infringements. Retrieved 2008-02-22.
Jump up^ "Scientists map global routes of ship-borne invasive species". BBC News. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Meinesz, A. (2003). Deep Sea Invasion. The Impact of Invasive Species. PBS: NOVA. Retrieved November 26, 2006, fromhttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/algae/impact.html
Jump up^ National Research Council, Committee on the Ocean's Role in Human Health, Ocean Studies Board, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources. (1999). From monsoons to microbes: understanding the ocean's role in human health. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Harrabin, R. (2003, June 25). EU faces ship clean-up call. BBC News. Retrieved November 1, 2006, fromhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3019686.stm
Jump up^ "Shipbreaking". Greenpeace. March 16, 2006. Retrieved 2007-08-27.

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